Oxitocina, vasopresina y conducta social: hipótesis neuropéptida para el trastorno autista / Oxytocin, vasopressin and social behavior: neuropeptide hypothesis

Introducción: El Trastorno Autista es una patología de inicio temprano que evoluciona hacia la cronicidad y se caracteriza principalmente por un desarrollo marcadamente anormal o deficiente de la interacción y comunicación social. Es más frecuente en hombres y si bien se presume que es de origen multifactorial, se plantea que puede ser explicado, al menos en parte, por una alteración en la neurobiología que da sustento a las conductas sociales normales. La Oxitocina y la Vasopresina han sido ampliamente relacionadas con las conductas sociales tanto en animales como en humanos, específicamente han sido relacionadas con las conductas de apego, de filiación y con el Trastorno Autista. Objetivos: Entregar un marco teórico que contribuya a organizar el amplio conocimiento que existe sobre la fisiopatología del Trastorno Autista y que entregue luces tanto para la investigación como para la clínica. Método: Se realiza una revisión bibliográfica sobre el rol que juegan la Oxitocina y la Vasopresina en las conductas sociales sanas y anormales tanto en animales como en humanos centrándose la discusión en la relación que tienen estos neuropéptidos con el Trastorno Autista. Conclusiones: Si bien se presume que la fisiopatología del Trastorno Autista es de origen multifactorial, se logra organizar un marco teórico para la comprensión de la fisiopatología del trastorno desde una hipótesis neuropéptida, lo cual tiene implicancias tanto para la investigación como para la clínica.

Introduction: Autistic disorder is an early onset disease that evolves into chronicity, characterized by the presence of markedly abnormal or deficient development of social interaction and communication. It is more common in men and although presumed to be of multifactorial origin, it is proposed that it can be explained, at least in part, by alterations in the neurobiology which gives supports to normal social behavior. Oxytocin and vasopressin have been widely associated with social behavior in animals and humans, specifically with attachment behaviors, affiliation and Autistic Disorder. Objectives: To provide a theoretical framework in order to help organize the extensive knowledge that exists about the pathophysiology of autistic disorder and to deliver light for both research and clinic. Methods: We performed a systematic review of the role played by oxytocin and vasopressin in healthy and abnormal social behavior in both animals and humans and focused the discussion on the relationship that have these neuropeptides with Autistic Disorder. Conclusions: Understanding the pathophysiology of the Autistic Disorder from a neuropeptide hypothesis, provides a theorethical framework which has implications for both research and clinic.

Hyponatremia and hypernatremia: disorders of water balance.

Total body water and tonicity is tightly regulated by renal action of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), reninangiotensin-aldosterone system, norepinephrine and by the thirst mechanism. Abnormalities in water balance are manifested as sodium disturbances--hyponatremia and hypernatremia. Hyponatremia ([Na+ < 136 meq/ l]) is a common abnormality in hospitalized patients and is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. A common cause of hyponatremia is impaired renal water excretion either due to low extracellular fluid volume or inappropriate secretion of ADH. Clinical assessment of total body water and urine studies help in determining cause and guiding treatment of hyponatremia. Acute and severe hyponatremia cause neurological symptoms necessitating rapid correction with hypertonic saline. Careful administration and monitoring of serum [Na+] is required to avoid overcorrection and complication of osmotic demyelination. Vasopressin receptor antagonists are being evaluated in management of euvolemic and hypervolemic hyponatremia. Hypematremia ([Na+] > 145 meq/l) is caused by primary water deficit (with or without Na+ loss) and commonly occurs from inadequate access to water or impaired thirst mechanism. Assessment of the clinical circumstances and urine studies help determine the etiology, while management of hypernatremia involves fluid resuscitation and avoiding neurological complications from hypernatremia or its correction. Frequent monitoring of [Na+] is of paramount importance in the treatment of sodium disorders that overcomes the limitations of prediction equations.

Organotypic slice culture of the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus of rat

Organotypic slice cultures have been developed as an alternative to acute brain slices because the neuronal viability and synaptic connectivity in these cultures can be preserved well for a prolonged period of time. This study evaluated a stationary organotypic slice culture developed for the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of rat. The results showed that the slice cultures maintain the typical shape of the nucleus, the immunocytochemical signals for oxytocin, vasopressin, and corticotropin-releasing hormone, and the electrophysiological properties of PVN neurons for up to 3 weeks in vitro. The PVN neurons in the culture expressed the green fluorescent protein gene that had been delivered by the adenoviral vectors. The results indicate that the cultured slices preserve the properties of the PVN neurons, and can be used in longterm studies on these neurons in vitro.

Uso de la vasopresina en el estado de choque / Vasopressin Use in Shock

La arginina-vasopresina (VP) también conocida como hormona antidiurética es esencial para mantener el equilibrio hídrico. Su síntesis y liberación depende de la interacción de estímulos osmóticos, hipovolémicos, hormonales y no osmóticos. Se ha demostrado que en estados de choque es fundamental para mantener la homeostasis cardiovascular a través de la regulación del tono vasomotor, el cual determina las resistencias vasculares sistémicas y la presión arterial media, a través de los receptores VI. El estado de choque con vasodilatación refractaria que se presenta en sepsis, respuesta inflamatoria sistémica, hipovolemia, paro cardiaco, politraumatismo, etc... se caracteriza por una fase inicial en la que hay liberación y aumento en los niveles séricos de VP, ésta es seguida por una segunda fase en la que se presentan niveles inapropiadamente bajos de la hormona y éstos se asocian con refractariedad al manejo con volumen, inotrópicos y vasopresores. Se ha demostrado, en estudios experimentales y clínicos, que en esta condición el tratamiento con vasopresina exógena incrementa la resistencia vascular sistémica, la presión de perfusión y el aporte de oxígeno a los tejidos periféricos lo cual hace posible la disminución y suspensión de los vasopresores e incrementa la supervivencia.

Arginine-vasopresin (VP), also known as the antidiuretic hormone, is essential for water homeostasis. Its synthesis and liberation depends on regulation of osmotic, hypovolemic, hormonal, and nonosmotic stimuli. It has been demonstrated that it is key for maintenance of cardiovascular homeostasis through vasomotor regulation, the determinant of systemic vascular resistance and mean arterial pressure, a process acting through VI receptors. Shock state with refractary vasodilation seen in sepsis, systemic inflamatory response, hypovolemia, cardiac arrest, polytrauma, etc., is characterized by an initial phase of liberation and increased levels of VP followed by a second phase caracterized by inappropirately low levels of this hormone that are associated with refractariness to management with volume, inotropics, and vasopressors. It has been demonstrated in clinical and experimental studies that exogenous VP treatment under this condition increases systemic vascular resistance, perfusion pressure, and oxygen supply to peripheral tissues, which makes it possible to decrease and to suspend vasopressors and also to increase survival.

Regulation of capacitative and non-capacitative Ca2+ entry in A7r5 vascular smooth muscle cells

A capacitative Ca2+ entry (CCE) pathway, activated by depletion of intracellular Ca2+ stores, is thought to mediate much of the Ca2+ entry evoked by receptors that stimulate phospholipase C (PLC). However, in A7r5 vascular smooth muscle cells, vasopressin, which stimulates PLC, empties intracellular Ca2+ stores but simultaneously inhibits their ability to activate CCE. The diacylglycerol produced with the IP3 that empties the stores is metabolized to arachidonic and this leads to activation of nitric oxide (NO) synthase, production of NO and cyclic GMP, and consequent activation of protein kinase G. The latter inhibits CCE. In parallel, NO directly activates a non-capacitative Ca2+ entry (NCCE) pathway, which is entirely responsible for the Ca2+ entry that occurs in the presence of vasopressin. This reciprocal regulation of two Ca2+ entry pathways ensures that there is sequential activation of first NCCE in the presence of vasopressin, and then a transient activation of CCE when vasopressin is removed. We suggest that the two routes for Ca2+ entry may selectively direct Ca2+ to processes that mediate activation and then recovery of the cell.

Role of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis in the control of the response to stress and infection

The release of adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) from the corticotrophs is controlled principally by vasopressin and corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). Oxytocin may augment the release of ACTH under certain conditions, whereas atrial natriuretic peptide acts as a corticotropin release-inhibiting factor to inhibit ACTH release by direct action on the pituitary. Glucocorticoids act on their receptors within the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland to suppress the release of vasopressin and CRH and the release of ACTH in response to these neuropeptides. CRH neurons in the paraventricular nucleus also project to the cerebral cortex and subcortical regions and to the locus ceruleus (LC) in the brain stem. Cortical influences via the limbic system and possibly the LC augment CRH release during emotional stress, whereas peripheral input by pain and other sensory impulses to the LC causes stimulation of the noradrenergic neurons located there that project their axons to the CRH neurons stimulating them by alpha-adrenergic receptors. A muscarinic cholinergic receptor is interposed between the alpha-receptors and nitric oxidergic interneurons which release nitric oxide that activates CRH release by activation of cyclic guanosine monophosphate, cyclooxygenase, lipoxygenase and epoxygenase. Vasopressin release during stress may be similarly mediated. Vasopressin augments the release of CRH from the hypothalamus and also augments the action of CRH on the pituitary. CRH exerts a positive ultrashort loop feedback to stimulate its own release during stress, possibly by stimulating the LC noradrenergic neurons whose axons project to the paraventricular nucleus to augment the release of CRH.

Generalized status epilepticus associated with massive pulmonary aspiration and transient central diabetes insipidus: case report

Status epilepticus causes significant morbidity and mortality. A case of generalized status epilepticus followed by massive pulmonary aspiration, acute respiratory failure and transient central diabetes insipidus is presented. Seizures were promptly controlled, but the patient required mechanical ventilation and correction of polyuria with desmopressin acetate. During hospitalization mental status improved, diabetes insipidus spontaneously remitted and he was discharged without neurologic sequelae. The clinical and pathophysiological features of this case are discussed

Síndrome cerebral perdedor de sal / Cerebral salt losing syndrome

Se presenta escolar de 9 años, sexo masculino con una hemorragia subaracnoida secundario a malformación vascular dorsolumbar: Evoluciona con hipovolemia severa, natriuveris y tendencia a la hiponatremia lo que hace plantear Síndrome Cerebral Perdedor de Sal (SCPS). Se manejó con aporte extra de sodio y fármaco con propiedades mineralocorticoides (Fluorhidrocortisona) con lo cual se observa mejoría. Alrededor de 1988 se plantea por primera vez este síndrome, presentándose entre el 9 y el 33 por ciento de los pacientes con hemorragia subaracnoídea. Dado lo difícil que resulta precisar la causa de la hiponetremia en estos pacientes se expone las características clínicas, fisiopatológicas y manejode esta afección

Acetato de desmopresina en niños enuréticos resistentes a terapias convencionales / Desmopressin acetate in children with conventional therapy resistant enuresis

Se describen los resultados obtenidos con acetato de desmopresina en aerosol por inhalación nasal en 29 niños (15 varones) entre 8 y 10 años de edad, que sufrían enuresis nocturna resistente a tratamiento con imipramina sola y/o asociada a ácido oxibutinino. En todos ellos la anatomía y función vesical eran normales y ninguno sufría enfermedades neurológicas o renales. La desmopresina se suministró en dosis diarias de 10 µg que fueron aumentadas semanalmente, si era necesario, en igual proporción, hasta obtener uno o ningún episodio semanal de enuresis o un máximo de 40 µg diarios del fármaco. La dosis así titulada se mantuvo por 3 meses, al cabo de los cuales se redujo progresivamente en 10 µg semanales hasta suspenderla. Los pacientes fueron seguidos hasta un mes después de la supresión del tratamiento. Se obtuvo buen éxito (uno o menos episodios de enuresis por semana) en 65 por ciento de los casos. Un mes después de suspender la desmopresina se registraban 62,2 por ciento de niñoscon uno o menos episodios semanales de enuresis, sugiriendo una baja proporción de recaídas en plazos cortos. No se anotaron efectos colaterales importantes duarnte el estudio en este grupo de niños, salvo cefalea persistente en un paciente con antecedentes de jaqueca